Constellations Lab

Abstract

This lab report analyzes simple occurrences in the night sky on the night of Wednesday, February 17, 2016. In order to get the best view of the night sky, students drove to Baker Observatory in Marshfield, Missouri to gather data. Locations of stars, planets, and the moon are recorded in order to get a better understanding of the objects around us.

Introduction

Each section of the lab report assignment ranging from A to G requires different pieces of information. Different skills learned in class, such as using fingers and hands to measure degrees in the sky and using a smartphone app to help identify stars, allowed us to uncover new information about the sky. Using a variety of methods such as those mentioned gave us the tools necessary to follow the questions in the lab packet.

Procedure

A. First, we used StarChart for Android to identify stars and constellations. The app was loaded and the phone camera was then pointed to the sky. As the user moved the phone around, the screen displayed labels for the points visible above.

B. Next, we looked up to the moon and recorded its size, phase, and location in the sky using our fingers and hands to estimate degrees.

C. Using StarChart again, we looked to the sky to identify planets. Though they look like stars from Earth, the application allowed us to differentiate between stars and planets. We also recorded the location using StarChart and our hands as guides.

D. We located the Andromeda Galaxy with the naked eye and also viewed it through a telescope to answer questions about its appearance.

E. This step was skipped, as we could not view the milky way on this evening.

F. Using our eyes to spot the brightest, most apparent stars in the night sky, we aimed StarChart at the points to identify their names. StarChart also helped in recording their locations in the sky.

G. We then found Polaris, the north star, and recorded the location and angle of the star in the sky. We compared the angle to Springfield’s latitude, as Springfield is just next to Marshfield.

Results and Discussion

A. On Wednesday, February 17, 2016, the visible constellations included Cassiopeia, Orion, and part of Leo. Orion and Leo are both a part of the zodiac. Pictured below are the general shapes of the observed constellations:

  

[1]

B. The moon was very bright this night and was in the waxing gibbous stage of its phases. The Azimuth was about 65° and the altitude was about 32° when we were at Baker Observatory. I was able to cover it with the tip of my finger at arm’s length with one eye closed, suggesting that it covers about two degrees’ width in the sky. (Method was similar to that in photo to the bottom right.)

[2]

When looking at the moon this night, it was very difficult to see stars near it. This is because the moon was reflecting a great deal of light from the sun.

Looking at the moon from the ground at night is also difficult because our eyes are not good at seeing such small details from so far away. I was not able to identify maria or craters from the ground, though I could tell there were darker and lighter spots on the surface.

C. On February 17^th, I was able to find Uranus and Jupiter in the night sky. These observations were taken at approximately 8:40pm.

Planet	Azimuth	Altitude
Uranus	255°	20°
Jupiter	25°	7°

D. The Orion Nebula was visible from the ground and Andromeda Galaxy was observed through a telescope this evening. They looked fuzzy and were not pin points of light like a star would be. The Orion Nebula was at about 210° southwest and 30° above the horizon at about 8:50pm.

It was difficult to tell that the galaxy was made up of 100 billion stars because it was fuzzy and faint. It could be inferred that it was a group of stars in the sky, but because the points were not well defined, it would be difficult to draw that conclusion without more information.

F. We found five stars that we believed to be the brightest and their locations in the sky at about 9pm that evening are as follows:

Star	Azimuth	Altitude
Sirius	163°	34°
Capella	328°	79°
Betelgeuse	176°	60°
Rigel	170°	40°
Procyon	115°	50°

G. Polaris was located at 350° above the horizon with an azimuth angle of 35°. Our estimate of Polaris’s location is very near what we know to be Springfield’s latitude to be at -27.1950° N. To me, this suggests that our view of a star in the sky is greatly affected by our location on Earth. Assuming Polaris should be directly north, it would make sense to conclude that our angle from what should be directly north influences how we perceive a star or planet’s location in the night sky.

Resources

[1] taken from: http://www.artofmanliness.com/2014/07/16/15-constellations-every-man-should-know/

[2] from: http://favim.com/image/180402/

Baker Lab 1: Constellations

Baker Lab 1: Constellations

Abstract:

      The advancement of technology in the last several hundred years has consequently led to progress in astronomy. New technology has given the scientific community the ability to discover and infer more about our universe than the fathers of astronomy could have ever dreamed. With the aid of telescopes we are now able to see far into the vast expanse of the universe, but knowledge of the night sky as seen with the naked eye still holds significant value. This knowledge can give one a sense of direction under the night sky, as well as an understanding of one's location on the Earth and the time of year.

Introduction:

        This lab helps students familiarize themselves with objects in the current visible portion celestial sphere, including visible stars, planets and constellations. Students are asked to locate and determine the azimuth and altitude of these bodies, as well as answer questions in each section provided with the lab.

Procedure:

     Materials: **StarChart smartphone app, constellation chart tool, compass, list of constellations, telescope

      **StarChart could not operate correctly on my phone. Therefore I had to rely on what constellations were identified by my lab partners.

A:

   In part A, students used StarChart to identify as many constellations as they could and mark them on a provided list of constellations. Students then used the app to locate the visible constellations of the Zodiac.

B:

    If visible, students were instructed to locate the moon, noting its phase, altitude and azimuth, and angular diameter. Altitude is calculated using estimated measurements such ass the fist and finger, while azimuth is found using a compass.

C:

    In part C, students located visible planets, noting the altitude and azimuth of the bodies as well as the time they were observed. Altitude and azimuth are calculated in the same way as part B.

D:

    The instructor showed students the Orion Nebula and the Andromeda galaxy with the aid of a telescope. Students answer questions concerning the visible properties of these bodies and are asked to approximate their respective altitude and azimuth angles.

E:

   Students are instructed to find the Milky Way and answer questions. However, the Milky Way was not visible at the time of this lab.

F:

   In part F, students find five of the brightest stars in the sky and identify them by name. Students record altitude and azimuth of each star and note the time of observation.

G:

    Students locate Polaris, calculate the altitude and azimuth, and compare their findings to the latitude of Springfield.

Results and Discussions:

A:

   Constellations identified:

Cassiopeia

Leo

Auriga

Canis Minor

Canis Major

Orion

  Locate and identify the constellations of the Zodiac.

      Orion and Leo are both part of the Zodiac.

B:  

    

1. What is the phase of the moon?

      The moon is currently a waxing gibbous.

2. What is its approximate altitude and azimuth? 

      Altitude:  32⁰ above the horizon

      Azimuth: 180⁰ due South

3. Can you cover it up the the tip of your finger at arm's length with one eye closed?

     Yes.

4. Knowing that the width of your finger at arm's length is approximately two degrees at arm's length, what is the approximate angular diameter of the moon?

    The approximate angular diameter is 2 degrees.

5. Is it easier or harder to see the starts next to the moon? Why might that be?

     It is harder to see starts next to the moon because the relative closeness of the moon and the Sun to the Earth means that the light reflected from the moon is much brighter than the light of stars that are many light-years away. Therefore, the moon creates a brighter background on which to view the stars, and the already faint light of these stars becomes even harder to see with the naked eye. 

6. What craters can you identify?

     I could not make out individual craters with my eyes.

7. What maria can you identify?

    I could identify maria in the north east quadrant of the moon, namely Mare Tranquilitatis, Mare Serenitatis, Mare Fecunditatis, and Mare Crisium. These areas of the moon are visible and labeled in the following diagram:

C:

  The following are the planets located using StarChart:

Planet	Constellation	Altitude	Azimuth	Time of Obs.
Uranus	Cetus	19⁰	90⁰ E	8:50 P.M
Jupiter	Leo	7⁰	25⁰ NE	8:50  P.M.

   I noticed that Uranus is not on the list of planets visible at this time of the year, or even visible with the naked eye. The StarChart app was able to locate the planet in spite of its invisibility.

D:

 1. Were you able to see that they are fuzzy and not "star like" single points of light?

      Yes. This observation is due to the fact that the nebula and galaxy consist of a multitude of stars and are extremely far away. This serves to "blend" the light together, blurring the image for us. Additionally, the interference of the Earth's atmosphere causes some blurriness. 

2.  At approximately what altitude and azimuth are they located? What is the time of your observation?

   Orion Nebula:

            Altitude: 30⁰

           Azimuth: 210⁰ SW

  Andromeda Galaxy:

           Altitude: approx 30⁰

           Azimuth: 255⁰ West

  The two bodies were observed at different times earlier in the lab as the instructor called students to the telescope. However, at the time of calculation of altitude and azimuth it was approximately 8:55 P.M.

   

E:

Not Applicable

F: 

  The following table contains the names and locations in the night sky of five of the brightest stars identified by my lab partners and I:

Star	Altitude	Azimuth	Time of Observation
Sirius	34⁰	150⁰ SE	9:00 P.M.
Betelgeuse	60⁰	217⁰ SW	9:00 P.M.
Capella	45⁰	282⁰ W	9:00 P.M.
Rigel	40⁰	173⁰ S	9:00 P.M.
Procyon	50⁰	116⁰ SE	9:00 P.M.

G:

  Polaris:

     Altitude: 35⁰

     Azimuth: 350⁰ NW

How does the location of Polaris compare with the latitude of Springfield (37.1950⁰ N)?

      At 350⁰ NW, Polaris is very close to being due North. In fact, it is only slightly West of North. Springield's latitude, however, is slightly East of North, with an angular distance of about 50⁰ between the two. Below is a diagram illustrating the respective locations if one were to envision the directions in an xy-plane:

Conclusion:

This lab allowed students to familiarize themselves with visible bodies in the night sky and develop skills for approximating their respective locations. Not only do these exercises give students a sense of direction at night and knowledge of what stars, constellations, and planets are visible at certain times, but students also have the opportunity to develop appreciation for the night sky as seen with the naked eye. In a world of rapidly-advancing technology, it is too easy to forget that the fathers of astronomy constructed their knowledge without telescopes. Instead, they used their eyes to observe patterns and relationships within our limited view of the universe.

Baker Lab #1- Constellations

   In this lab, we studied the constellations that we could see with the visible eye. Using an app on our Smartphones called StarChart, we were able to recognize different constellations and planets that would be otherwise unknown. We traveled to Baker Observatory to complete this lab, an Observatory that is around 45 minutes off the Missouri State Campus in Fairgrove, Missouri.

A) Using StarChart:
1. Identified constellations that were visible at the time: Andromeda, Canis Minor, Lepus, Orion, Monoceros, Caelum, and Camelopardalis
2. Constellations of the Zodiac: Aries, Pisces, Cancer, Taurus, Gemini, and Leo.

B) Then we located the moon and answered the following questions.
1. The phase of the Moon was waning gibbous.
2. The approximate azimuth was 214 degrees, and the altitude was 75 degrees.
3. We were able to cover the moon up with the tip of our finger at arm's length with one eye closed.
4. The approximate angular diameter of the moon is 4.5 degrees.
5. It is harder to see the stars next to the moon, because the reflection of light off of its surface creates a glare that blocks out further surrounding bodies that might be producing or reflecting light.
6. We identified the Messier Crater on the surface of the Moon.
7. We identified Mare Imbrium, Oceanus Procellarum, and Mare Tranquilitatis on the surface of the moon.

C) We then located as many planets as we could, and identified the constellations they were in.
1. We viewed Jupiter at 9:42 PM at a 95 degree azimuth and a 30 degree altitude.

D) We then found the Orion Nebula and the Andromeda Galaxy.
1. We were able to see the fuzzy and not "star like" single points of light.
2. They were located at 190 degrees azimuth and 65 degrees altitude.
3. The Andromeda galaxy wasn't very bright, mostly because the distance and moonlight interfered.

F) In this section we scouted out the brightest stars that were visible to the naked eye.
1. The brightest stars were (At 9:57 PM)...
- Polaris- 0 degree azimuth, 35 degree altitude
- Sirius- 185 degree azimuth, 45 degree altitude
- Alioth- 50 degree azimuth, 40 degree altitude
- Capela- 350 degree azimuth, 80 degree altitude
-Rigel- 210 degree azimuth, 40 degree altitude

G) Next, we found Polaris.
1. Polaris was 35 degrees above the horizon at 9:57 PM.
2. The azimuth degree of Polaris was 0 degrees at 9:57 PM.
3. The altitude of Polaris is nearly equal to the latitude of Springfield, Missouri.

   In conclusion, we were able to make certain observations about stars without having to use a telescope. These observations included the azimuth, altitude, and brightness of stars.

Surface of the Moon Lab Report

Astronomy 115, Honors, Plavchan

Brooke Masterson

Introduction:  Since Galileo first turned his telescope to view its surface, the Moon has been a prime object of human curiosity.  Since then, we have photographed the entire surface of the Moon, have samples of the Moon, and knowledge about its interior.  Needless to say, our knowledge of the Moon has grown exponentially and we still want to learn more. 

Procedure:  Students in the Astronomy 115 Honors lab were asked to learn more about the Moon than before with online websites and tools given to us in the beginning of this lab. 

            Our own Sky and telescope Moon map

            Google Moon https://www.google.com/moon/

             The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter map of the Moon (released in 2015)

            http://www.usgs.gov/blogs/features/usgs_top_story/visit-the-moon-without-leaving-your-desk/   and   http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/sim3316 and https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/

I will answer the questions given to me in the Procedure section of my lab report below.    

Results and Discussion:

A)   Study the surface details and markings on your map and the maps linked to above, noting particularly the distribution of maria, mountains and craters.  Read the descriptions and keys on each map and note the coordinate systems.  After you are familiar with the general features on the maps, answer the following questions (on a blog post):

1.     Which of these features (maria, mountains and craters) are found mainly in the lunar lowlands and which are found mainly in the lunar highlands?

The lunar lowlands are filled with maria, while the lunar highlands are covered in craters.

2.     Which of these features frequently act as borders between the lowlands and highlands?

Out of all of these features, I would say that the craters act as borders between the lowlands and the highlands.  The mountains are definitely not the borders because they rest in the middle of the lunar lowlands and maria. 

3.     As reckoned on the moon, in which Quadrant of the side facing us are the maria mostly found?

On the side of the Moon facing Earth, the Western Quadrant is littered with maria (Insularum, Imbrium, Cognitum, Humorum, Nubium), but there are more maria on the North-eastern quardrant as well, including Mare Crisium, Serenitatis,  Tranquilitatis, and Mare Frigoris spans both the North-eastern and North-western quadrant. 

B)   Study in detail Mare Imbrium and Oceanus Procellarum, noting the craters appearing in each.  Keep in mind that astronomers have determined that the maria (seas) were, at one time, liquid lava.

1.     If you restrict your view to the craters Plato, Archimedes, Wallace and Cassini in Mare Imbrium and to the craters Flamsteed, Letroone, Marius, Prinz and Herodotus in Oceanus Procellarum, which would you say came first, these craters or the mare?  Explain your reasoning. 

I think the craters were first, and then the mare came second.  I say this because in all of these craters mentioned above, especially in comparison to pictures of new Moon craters found on Google images, these craters had smoothed edges, are less deep than newly formed craters usually are, and have less rays (if at all!) coming from the impact.  And these craters do not have smooth edges and filled in looking craters due to erosion, because I don’t believe that erosion on the Moon (which has no atmosphere) would be capable of making so many craters so smooth looking or filled in looking like these craters look like. 

2.     Now look at the craters Kepler and Copernicus located in Mare Insularum, next to Oceanus Procellarum, and explain which came first, these craters or the mare?  Explain your reasoning.

I think that the mare was there first, then the craters came second.  I believe this because these craters match the characteristics of the pictures of new Moon craters found on Google images.  These craters have rays, deep impacts (deeper than the craters listed above in question 1), and rough edges. 

3.     Which other maria and craters could be used as examples of the scenarios depicted in questions 1 and 2 (two examples of each will suffice). 

- Examples of craters that came before the mare they crashed into would be the crater Le Monnier and Gambart (#61 and #64 on Sky and Telescope’s Moon Map). 

- Examples of when mare came before the craters that impacted into (when craters were second) would be the craters Aristarchus, Manilius, and Menelaus (#57, 73, 74 on the Sky and Telescope’s Moon Map). 

4.     Comment on the history of the lava flows that produced the lunar maria relative to when crater production occurred. 

From what I found online, lava flows on the Moon occurred near the mares from 4 billion years ago to as recent as 1 billion years ago.  According to the researchers at Oregon state, some bigger impact craters in the mare (on the near side of the Moon) in that time period helped create the lava flows.  The Moon is not like the Earth when it comes to lava flow.  On the Earth, most lava flows are due to tectonic plates and their movements.  Instead, the Moon experiences lava flows due to huge craters impacting on the thin crusted near side of the Moon.  As we know, the near side of the Moon has many mares.  Therefore, the impacts of the craters in the mares created lava flows in the mares that flowed evenly and smoothly and over large distances over the mare’s surface.  This is how craters, like the ones mentioned in question 1, are filled in and smoother than the craters mentioned in question 2.  It is because some of those craters impacted on the mares before 1 billion years ago.  That means lava was flowing on the Moon’s near side in the mares (due mostly to the bigger craters that impacted the mares) and those lava flows filled in those craters.  Therefore, the craters that are not filled in or smooth in appearance and are very deep impacted with the mares after 1 billion years ago, when the lava flow stopped on the Moon. 

http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/book/export/html/995

C)   Study the large and small craters in the lunar highlands.  Note the type of craters which have high peaks and those which do not.  Also, note the overlapping of craters on craters in certain regions. 

1.     Do most large craters have central peaks?  Do most small ones?

Yes, most large craters have central peaks.  However, most of the small ones do not.

2.     When overlapping occurs, do the large or the smaller craters appear to be younger?  Why?

When overlapping occurs, the smaller craters appear to be younger.  I think this because the small craters either are impacted the Moon’s surface INSIDE of the earlier crater – therefore making the small craters have a deeper impact in the Moon’s surface.  Also, the smaller craters have more rays around them and are rougher in texture than the larger ones.

3.     Based on the evidence you see on the maps, what do you suspect the origin of the lunar craters to be?  Explain your reasoning.

I suspect the origin of lunar craters are from extraterrestrial (not from the Moon, I mean) impacts, like meteors.  There is nothing on the Moon’s surface that could create explosions to project objects in the air only for them to come back down and impact the Moon.  I know that the Moon doesn’t have volcanic reactions/tectonic plate reactions due to the website I cited earlier in question 4, Section B of the lab.  Therefore, my conjecture is that meteors impact with the Moon to create these craters. 

D)   Study the mountain ranges in general, paying particular attention to the Apennine, Haemus Caucasus, Carpathian and Pyrenes ranges. 

1.     What is the highest mountain or mountain range on the Moon?  What is the approximate elevation?

The highest mountain on the Moon is known as Mt. Everest, which is taller than the Earth’s Mt. Everest.  The Moon’s Mt. Everest is approximately 10786 meters tall, which is 1938 meters taller than Earth’s Mt. Everest.  I have a picture of it from NASA below and the link to the website.

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20101027-highest.html

2.     In general to the mountain ranges extend in straight or curved lines?  Based on the evidence you see on the maps, what do you suspect the origin of lunar mountain ranges to be?  Explain your reasoning.

- Based on my observations from the Sky and Telescope Moon Map, most of the mountain ranges extend in curved lines.  They surround one of the most northern marias, Maria Imbrium.  However, there are mountain ranges that extend in straight lines, like Caucasus Mountains in the Northern Quadrant of the Moon facing us. 

 - Without any prior knowledge, I thought the Moon’s mountains were created from the impacts of craters like ripples are created from a drop of water in a pond.   The right answer (which I had predicted) was presented in the Oregon state website and the LROC website, listed below.  Both stated that mountain ranges are indeed produced from the impact large craters have on the Moon’s surface.  (The Moon doesn’t create mountain ranges like the Earth does with tectonic plates, because the Moon doesn’t have any.) http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/217

E)   Using Google Moon or the LRO maps, study the “far side” or the hidden part of the Moon’s surface.  Compare the features on the far side with those you have studied on the near side.

1.     What seems to be the major differences between the two sides?

The major differences between the two sides are that the near side of the Moon has maria and lunar lowlands while the far side of the Moon mainly has craters.  There is also a difference in the elevation of the two sides – the near side has a lower elevation than the far side. 

2.     What are the main similarities?

The main similarities are that

            … the Moon’s North and South poles are covered in craters.

            … the Moon’s North and South poles are lunar highlands.

3.     What would you say is the most prominent feature on the far side of the Moon?  What kind of feature is it?  Speculate on how it may have formed. 

Craters are the most prominent feature on the far side of the Moon.  They cover almost every part of the far side of the Moon’s surface, which makes it slightly impossible for me to count.  However, I’ll speculate that there are at least 200,000 craters, ranging in small to large sizes, on the far side of the Moon.

4.     Do the numbers of large and small craters appear to be the same on both sides of the moon?  If not, what differences do you note?  (Do not count the maria as craters)

The amount of craters on the far side outweighs the amount of craters on the near side of the Moon.  I think there are more large craters on the far side of the Moon than the near side, though, based on the pictures given to us in the lab. 

5.     Do the shape and detail of the craters on each side seem to be the same? Explain. 

 The shape and detail of the craters appear to be the same for each side.  The large craters have central peaks and the smaller craters usually don’t.  Besides the fact that there are more craters on the far side, both sides of the Moon have craters and they appear to be the same.  They both definitely have rays.  (Take into account that the far side of the Moon doesn’t have maria, so the craters that were filled in by the lava flows on the near side of the Moon won’t have any look-a-likes on the far side of the Moon.)

F)    After studying the surface of the Moon, study a picture of Mercury’s surface:

1.     What similarities do you find between the surface of the Moon and Mercury?

Both experience cratering from large and small objects.

Both have low and high areas of elevation.

Both of their South poles have a lot of crater impacts.

2.     What major differences do you note?

The Moon has heavier cratering than Mercy does. 

The Moon has higher elevation (in general) than Mercury does.

The Moon has a very heavily cratered North AND South pole, while Mercury’s South pole is the only heavily cratered pole it has.

3.     Suggest a reason for any differences or similarities.

I think that the distance from the Sun might have something to do with the amount of cratering Mercury experiences.  Perhaps the close distance Mercury has to the Sun heats up any small particles that would impact Mercury to a point that they burn up in space before reaching Mercury.  Also, the Earth and the Moon are closer to the asteroid belt than Mercury is.  Perhaps that has something to deal with how the Moon experiences more cratering than Mercury.  Those are just my personal speculations, though. 

G)   Between 1969 and 1972, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) made six successful Apollo manned landings on the Moon in order to learn details about the Lunar surface and interior not obtainable from the Earth.  Below are the selenographic (lunar) coordinates for each of these landing sites, latitutde and longitude.   

LRO was able to image the landing sites in enough detail to see the bases of the landers of the equipment left behind on the surface of the moon.  Follow this link to explore our first steps as a species on another world:

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/#.Vpq7tfH19ks

Find the positions of each on your Sky and Telescope Moon map, and then on Google Moon.  Briefly comment on the following questions for each sit:

What is the most general appearance of each landing site?  Which lunar features did the astronauts learn most about?  What reasons can you see for picking each particular spot?

   Apollo 11:  The reason I speculate that NASA landed there was to explore a double crater, a single crater, and the mare on the Moon.  The most general appearance of this landing site is the mare.

   Apollo 12:  I speculate NASA wanted to land there was to discover more about craters.  There were three craters near this landing site.  Also, maybe they explored the lower elevation on the Moon, since it was only 2 km high.

   Apollo 14:  I know that the astronauts on this adventure wanted to explore the Cone Crater, but sampled a boulder instead because they couldn’t find the crater. 

    Apollo 15:  I speculate the astronauts wanted to explore the wide canyon known as the Hadley Rille and some Dunes.  They were also able to sample some high-reflectance rocks and boulders.

    Apollo 16: On this mission, the astronauts were able to see the rays that are produced from a meteor impact, the edges of the Smoky Mountains and the Stone Mountain on the Moon.  They were also able to experience the medium level of elevation on the Moon as well as another crater (small). 

H)   The Soviet Union also landed spacecraft on the Moon, but they were unmanned.  However, the most notable successes are those which returned lunar samples to Earth and those which had a lunar rover for exploring the surface.  The coordinates for three of these landing are given below:

 

Find the positions of these sites on your moon map and Google Moon and briefly comment on the following questions for each site:

1.      What is the general appearance of each landing site, which lunar features were studied, and what reason can you see for picking each particular spot?

Luna 16 – the general appearance of this spot is that it is a mare.  Actually, it is the Mare Fecunditatis, which is in the middle eastern part of the Moon’s near side.  I think this spot was chosen because no Apollo missions were near it, and it explores yet another mare on the surface of the Moon.

Luna 17 – the general appearance of this spot is it is in the Mare Imbrium, and the Luna 17 landed near the Jura Mountain range.  Therefore, the mountain range and the mare were the prime object of exploration for this mission.  Also, this spot was, like Luna 16, far away from any other Apollo mission. 

Luna 21 – the border of the Mare Serenitatis was the main object of the mission.  The border of the mare and all of its craters were also another object of the mission, I’m guessing.  Like the other Luna missions, it covered a mare that the Apollo missions hadn’t explored yet.

Conclusion

            In this lab, we were expected to know more about the Moon than before.  I did not know about how the lava flows on the Moon happened, when they occurred, and how they affected craters on the Moon’s appearance.  I learned about the Apollo and Luna missions, that the United States and the Soviets were in charge of, where they landed, and speculated why they landed there.  I looked at the far side of the Moon for the first time and compared it to the near side of the Moon.  I also compared the Moon to Mercury.  The Moon, needless to say, is very interesting.  That is why it has captivated our attention on Earth and continues to do so.  That is why it still captivates my attention, and will continue to do so for the rest of my life.  This lab was very good at helping me discover more about our Moon.  

Surface of the Moon

Caleb W. Skocy

AST 115 Honors

10 February 2016

Lab Report #2

Surface of the Moon

Introduction

In this lab, we studied in detail various characteristics of the Moon.  These features include the maria, craters, and mountains.  We also located several of the Apollo mission landings and the Soviet Union’s Luna landings.  By inspecting the geography of the Moon, we can learn many things about the Moon’s history and formation, like when the maria or certain craters are likely to have appeared.  Along with learning about the Moon’s history, we can also infer some information about the history of our solar system as well.

 

Procedure

We studied several different features of the Moon and of specific landing sites for Apollo and Luna missions.  Then we attempted to answer several questions concerning the Moon’s surface.  To do this we used Sky & Telescope’s Moon Map, a large National Geographic Moon map, several Moon globes, and other online maps and resources.  The links to the online sources are given below:

https://www.google.com/moon/

http://www.usgs.gov/blogs/features/usgs_top_story/visit-the-moon-withoutleaving-your-desk/ http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/sim3316 https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/

A) In this section of the lab, we simply familiarized ourselves with the features and coordinate systems of the Moon maps.  We also studied some of the more general features of the Moon (such as maria, mountains, and crater).

B) Here we closely inspected the features and craters of Mare Imbrium and Oceanus Procellarum.

C) Next, we studied the characteristics of craters in the lunar highlands, noting peaks and the overlap of craters.

D) Then we studied the Moon’s mountain ranges, especially the Apennine, Haemus Caucasus, Carpathian, and Pyrenes mountain ranges.

E) We studied the “hidden side” of Moon and compared its features with that of the side facing Earth.

F) We compared the surface of the Moon with this picture of Mercury:

G) We located and observed the landing areas of the following manned Apollo missions:

1. Apollo 11 0.8°N, 23.5°E
2. Apollo 12 3.2°S, 23.4°W
3. Apollo 14 3.7°S,17.5°W
4. Apollo 15 26.1°N, 3.7°E
5. Apollo 16 9.0°S, 15.5°W
6. Apollo 17 20.2°N, 30.8°E

H) Finally, we located and observed the landing areas of the following unmanned Soviet Union missions to the moon:

1. Luna 16 0.7°S, 56.3°E
2. Luna 17 38.3°N, 35.0°W
3. Luna 21 27.0°N, 31.5°E

Results and Discussion

A) General features of the moon.

1. Which of these features (maria, mountains and craters) are found mainly in the lunar lowlands and which are found mainly in the lunar highlands?

• Maria are mostly found in the lunar lowlands, while the craters and mountains are more prominent in the highlands.  

2. Which of these features frequently act as borders between the lowlands and highlands?

• The mountains seem to often act as borders between lunar highlands and lowlands.  Many half filled craters can also be seen at the liminal area between highlands and lowlands.

3. As reckoned on the moon, in which Quadrant of the side facing us are the maria mostly found?

• Most of the maria are in the Northwest (or upper left) quadrant facing us.

B) Craters in the maria.

1. If you restrict your view to the craters Plato, Archimedes, Wallace and Cassini in Mare Imbrium and to the craters Flamsteed, Letroone, Marius, Prinz and Herodotus in Oceanus Procellarum, which would you say came first, these craters or the mare? Explain your reasoning.

• I would say that the craters were formed before the mare.  This is because these craters are little more than the upper rim of craters, and they have apparently flat bottoms at about the same level as that of the mare.  This can be explained by the lava that formed the mare spilling into the craters.

2. Now look at the craters Kepler and Copernicus located in Mare Insularum, next to Oceanus Procellarum, and explain which came first, these craters or the mare? Explain your reasoning.

• It would seem that these craters appeared after the mare was formed.  This is because they do not have flat, even bottoms like the previous craters.  Also, their bottoms seem to go lower than the mare, giving proof that the ground was broken afterwards.

3. Which other maria and craters could be used as examples of the scenarios depicted in questions 1 and 2 (two examples of each will suffice).

• Posidonius on the edge of Mare Serenitatis and Taruntius near Mare Fecunditatis both appear to be examples of mare filled craters.
• Manilius in Mare Vaporum and Plinius in Mare Tranquilitatus are examples of craters which appeared after the mare had formed.

4. Comment on the history of the lava flows that produced the lunar maria relative to when crater production occurred.

• Just from observing the surface of the Moon, we can make assumptions about the history of the Moon’s surface formations.  We can see that the volcanic activity of the Moon continued after a large part of its cratering occurred, as can be seen by the minuscule amount of cratering in the mare opposed to the large amount of cratering elsewhere.

C) Craters in the lunar highlands.

1. Do most large craters have central peaks? Do most small ones?

• It appears that, mostly, only larger craters have central peaks, while smaller craters do not.

2. When overlapping occurs, do the larger or the smaller craters appear to be younger? Why?

• It appears that the smaller ones are usually younger, impacting and marring the larger craters.  If the larger craters were younger, they would probably have destroyed most evidence for the smaller craters.

3. Based on the evidence you see on the maps, what do you suspect the origin of lunar craters to be? Explain your reasoning.

• I would say that the cratering of the Moon’s surface is caused by the impact of asteroids and other foreign objects from space impacting the Moon’s surface.  It can be seen that the larger part of the cratering would have occurred earlier on, during the more violent time near the beginning of our solar system’s formation.  Since then, impacts have been smaller and farther in between, as seen by the small craters within the larger craters and the small amount of cratering within the maria.

D) The Moon’s mountains.

1. What is the highest mountain or mountain range on the Moon? What is the approximate elevation?

• The highest mountain on the Moon is Mons Huygens within the Apennine range, standing about 5.5km tall; while Montes Cordillera is the mountain range reaching the highest elevation, around 8,500m.

2. In general, do the mountain ranges extend in straight or curved lines? Based on the evidence you see on the maps, what do you suspect the origin of lunar mountain ranges to be? Explain your reasoning.

• The mountain ranges seem to extend in curved lines.  I suspect the mountain ranges to be the remains of large craters caused by collisions between the Moon and other large objects.  As we can see around Mare Orientale, Montes Cordillera and Montes Rook take on a completely circular shape.  It seems obvious that this was caused by a very large impact long ago, with volcanic activity (possibly caused by the impact) filling in the bottom of the crater and creating the mare.  It would seem that most of the mountain ranges were created long ago, as the rims of very large craters.  The rest of these craters have since been filled by the mare, or been covered by myriads of other craters.

E) Hidden vs. Near side of the Moon

1. What seems to be the major differences between the two sides?

• The far side is much more cratered than the near side of the Moon, while the near side has a much greater number of maria.  This is probably because the near side would have been affected by tidal forces from the Earth causing the volcanic activity.

2. What are the main similarities?

• In the areas without maria, both are very heavily cratered.  The maria also appear in the lowlands on either side, while the highlands are characterized by craters.  The North and South poles on either side also seem to be much more cratered than the areas closer to the equator.

3. What would you say is the most prominent feature on the far side of the Moon? What kind of feature is it? Speculate on how it may have formed.

• The most prominent feature is Mare Moscoviense. It is a singular mare surrounded by highlands. It appears that it was caused by a large impact.  This impact probably struck hard and deep enough to cause lava to spill up through the crust and fill in the crater, creating the mare.

4. Do the numbers of large and small craters appear to be the same on both sides of the moon? If not, what differences do you note? (Do not count the maria as craters).

• The number of small craters seem to be about the same on either side, but the number of large craters is not the same.  It appears that the far side has a much larger number of large craters.  This would be because most of the larger craters would have occurred earlier, before most of the maria were formed.

5. Do the shape and detail of the craters on each side seem to be the same? Explain.

• They seem to be about the same.  They are, of course, mostly round in shape.  Larger ones often have cratering from smaller craters within them.  The one’s on the far side though seem to overlap more often.  

F) Moon vs. Mercury

1. What similarities do you find between the surface of the Moon and Mercury?

• They are both heavily cratered.  Both also have craters with rays shooting out from them.  They also both appear to not have a very strong atmosphere.

2. What major differences do you note?

• Mercury does not appear to have large smooth areas, such as the maria on the Moon.

3. Suggest a reason for any differences or similarities.

• They are both old enough to have been heavily cratered.  The weak atmosphere of each would contribute to the heavy cratering and the rays of debris, as there would be almost no erosion.  The reason that the Moon has maria but Mercury does not appear to have any may be that the Moon’s volcanic activity continued longer after Mercury ceased to be volcanically active, so all of Mercury’s maria have already been covered by craters.

G) The Apollo missions’ locations.

1. What is the most general appearance of each landing site, which lunar features did the astronauts learn most about, and what reasons can you see for picking each particular spot?

• Apollo 11: This landing site would have been relatively flat, being on the edge of Mare Tranquilitatis.  The astronauts would have mostly only learn about the mare, but the was a small crater (Little West) nearby also.  The reason for this spot was that it is smooth, providing an easy landing, and it was a good area to set up several small experiments, including the Laser Ranging RetroReflector (LRRR) and Passive Seismic Experiment Package (PSEP).
• Apollo 12: This landing area was once again flat and in a mare. There are also several small craters nearby.  The astronauts took rock and soil samples of both mare and crater material.  This was a good spot to land because it would have again provided a smooth landing.  Also, it was close to where the Surveyor 3 had landed, so they were able to retrieve some parts from it.
• Apollo 14: This mission also landed in a mare, not far from Apollo 12.  These astronauts collected samples from nearby crater debris, helping us learn more about the lunar crust.  This site was chosen because of the large Cone Crater nearby which would allow for good samples of the Moon’s crust, also, it would have been an easy landing.
• Apollo 15: This mission landed right at the edge of Mare Imbrium, next to the Apennine mountain range.  The crew would have been able to learn more about the makeup of the nearby mountainous highlands, but there was also a “young” volcanic rille nearby for them to survey.  This was a good site to learn more about the geography of the Moon’s surface, with the nearby mountain range.
• Apollo 16: This landing site was in a relatively smooth area of the lunar highlands, but there are several smaller highland craters nearby.  They would have made discoveries about the composition of the lunar highlands and their craters.  This site was chosen partly because of its proximity to the North Ray, a young bright-rayed crater.  Also, it it would give insight into the makeup of rocks in the highlands.
• Apollo 17: This mission landed at the edge of Mare Serenitatis, right on the border of the cratered highlands.  This site would have provided information about both mare and craters in the liminal area of the highlands.  It was a good location for surveying both the mare and cratered region leading into the highlands.

H) The Luna mission landings.

1. What is the general appearance of each landing site, which lunar features were studied, and what reason can you see for picking each particular spot?

• Luna 16: This landed in the eastern region of Mare Fecunditatis.  This landing provided a soil sample from the mare.  This area would have been good for the easy and smooth landing it would have given the Luna 16, and was perfect for collecting a sample from the mare.
• Luna 17: Luna 17 landed in the northwestern region of Mare Imbrium.  It would have been very flat with some small craters nearby.  Luna 17 would have provided pictures and soil tests.  This area was ideal for the Luna 17 rover, being flat and maneuverable.
• Luna 21: This mission landed at the eastern edge of Mare Serenitatis in the Le Monnier crater.  This area would provide information (including photos and soils tests) about the mare as well as the border of the highlands.  This site, once again, would have provided a smooth and manageable surface for the rover, while also giving a view of the highlands.

Conclusion

As we can see, there is much that can be learned just by observing the surface geography of the Moon.  We can infer when the maria were most likely formed, which gives us an idea of the age of craters in the maria.  We can assume where a large crater is most likely to be found, as well as infer a relative age to it.  Soil tests from the surface can also tell us about the composition of the Moon’s crust.  Along with all of this, the surface of the Moon can help tell us about the history of our solar system, such as when the most violent collisions would have been occurring.